Geology Midterm Review

Introduction to Geology GEOL-101 Midterm 1 Review Based on the textbook: Understanding Earth, 6th Edition, by Grotzinger and Press CH 1: earth system Summary The human creative process, field and lab observations, and experiments help geoscientists formulate testable hypotheses (models) for how the Earth works and its history. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation focusing attention on plausible features and relationships of a working model. If a testable hypothesis is confirmed by a large body of data, it may be elevated to a theory. Theories are abandoned when subsequent investigations show them to be false.Confidence grows in those theories that withstand repeated tests and successfully predict the results of new experiments. A set of hypothesis and theories may become the basis of a scientific model that represents an entire system too complicated to replicate in the laboratory. Often models are tested and revised in a series of computer simulations. Confidence in such a model grows as it successfully predicts the behavior of the system. The elevations of Earth topography averages 1–2 kilometers above sea level for land features and 4–5 kilometers below sea level for features of the deep ocean.The principle of uniformitarianism states that geological processes have worked in the same way throughout time. Earth’s interior is divided into concentric layers (crust, mantle, core) of sharply different chemical composition and density. The layered composition of the Earth is driven by gravity. Only eight of the 100 or so elements account for 99 percent of Earth’s mass. The lightest element (oxygen) is most abundant in the surface crust and mantle, while the densest (iron) makes up most of what is found deep in the core. Earth’s major interacting systems are the climate system, the plate tectonic system, and the geodynamic system.The climate system involves interactions among the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The plat e tectonic system involves interactions among the lithosphere, asthenosphere, and deep mantle. The geodynamic system involves interactions within the central core that produce occasional reversals of Earth’s magnetic field. As the Earth cooled, an outer relatively rigid shell, called the lithosphere, formed. Dynamic processes driven by heat transfer, density differences, and gravity broke the outer shell into plates that move around the Earth at rates of centimeters per year.Major components (atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere) of Earth’s surface systems are driven mostly by solar energy. Earth’s internal heat energizes the lithosphere, asthenosphere, deep mantle, and outer and inner core. Terms and Concepts Asthenosphere Convection Core Continental lithosphere Continental crust Earth systems Geology Inner core Lithosphere Mantle Oceanic lithosphere Oceanic crust Plate tectonic system Principle of uniformitarianism Scientific method Topography CH 2: plate tecton ics Summary For over the last century some geologists have argued for the concept of continental drift based on: he jigsaw-puzzle fit of the coasts on both sides of the Atlantic the geological similarities in rock ages and trends in geologic structures on opposite sides of the Atlantic fossil evidence suggesting that continents were joined at one time the distribution of glacial deposits as well as other paleoclimatic evidence In the last half of the twentieth century the major elements of the plate tectonic theory were formulated. Starting in the 1940s (WWII), ocean floor mapping began to reveal major geologic features on the ocean floor.Then, the match between magnetic anomaly patterns on the seafloor with the paleomagnetic time scale revealed that the ocean floor had a young geologic age and was systematically older away from the oceanic ridge systems. The concepts for seafloor spreading, subduction, and transform faulting evolved out of these and other observations. According to the theory of plate tectonics, the Earth’s lithosphere is broken into a dozen moving plates. The plates slide over a partially molten, weak asthenosphere, and the continents, embedded in some of the moving plates, are carried along.There are three major types of boundaries between lithospheric plates: divergent boundaries, where plates move apart convergent boundaries, where plates move together and one plate often subducts beneath the other transform boundaries, where plates slide past each other Volcanoes, earthquakes, and crustal deformation are concentrated along the active plate boundaries. Mountains typically form along convergent- and transform-plate boundaries. Where divergent-plate boundaries are exposed on land, subsiding basins and mafic volcanism are typical.Various methods have been used to estimate and measure the rate and direction of plate movements. Today seafloor-spreading rates vary between a few to 24 cm per year. Seafloor isochrons provide the basis for reconstructing plate motions for about the last 200 million years. Distinct assemblages of rocks characterize eachtype of plate boundary. Using diagnostic rock assemblages embedded in continents and paleo-environmental data recorded by fossils and sedimentary rocks, geologists have been able to reconstruct ancient plate tectonic events and plate configurations.Driven by Earth’s internal heat, convection of hot and cold matter within the mantle, the force of gravity and the existence of an asthenosphere are important factors in any model for the driving mechanism of plate tectonics. Currently studies of the plate-driving forces focus on discovering the exact nature of the mantle convection. Questions being addressed include: Where do the plate driving forces originate? At what depth does recycling occur? What is the nature of rising Convection Currents? The assembly and subsequent break up of Pangaea represent a striking example of the effects of plate tectonics acting over ge ologic time.The story begins with the breakup of the ancient supercontinent of Rodinia 750 million years ago. Plate tectonic processes dispersed the fragments of Rodinia forming a system of ancient continents that existed from the late Proterozoic through much of the Paleozoic. Continued tectonic movement eventually resulted in a set of continental collisions and reformation of the ancient continents into Pangaea. Assembly was completed during the early Triasic, about 240 million years ago. Then, about 200 million years ago the rift that would evolve into the Atlantic Ridge began to open and the separation of Pangaea was underway.By the beginning of the Cenezoic, India was well on its way to Asia, and the Tethys sea that had separated Africa from Eurasia began to close into the modern inland sea that we know as the Mediterranean. Continued changes during the Cenozoic produced our modern world and its geography. Terms and Concepts Continental drift Continent-continent convergent boun dary Convergent boundary Divergent boundary Island arc Isochron Lithospheric plates Magnetic anomaly Magnetic time scale Mid-ocean ridge Mountain range Ocean-ocean convergent boundary Ocean-continent convergent boundary Pangaea Plate tectonicsSeafloor spreading Spreading center Subduction Transform boundary Wegener’s hypothesis CH 3: earth materials Summary Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with a specific crystal structure and chemical composition. Minerals form when atoms or ions chemically bond and come together in an orderly, three-dimensional geometric array—a crystal structure. Chemical bonding may occur either as a result of simple electrostatic attraction (ionic bond) or electron sharing (covalent bond). The strength of the chemical bonds and the crystalline structure determine many of the physical properties, e. . , hardness, cleavage of minerals. Silicate minerals are the most abundant class of minerals in the Earth’s crust and mantle. Common silicate minerals are polymorphs of silicon ions arranged in either isolated tetrahedral (olivine), single chains (pyroxene), double chains (amphibole), sheets (mica), or three-dimensional frameworks (feldspar). There are three important groups of silicates: ferromagnesium silicates, e. g. , olivine and pyroxene—common in the mantle feldspar and quartz—common in the crust clay mineral—commonly produced by chemical weatheringOther common mineral classes include carbonates, oxides, sulfates, sulfides, halides, and native metals. A rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals. A few rocks consist of only one mineral and a few others consist of non-mineral matter. The properties of rocks and rock names are determined by mineral content (the kinds and proportions of minerals that make up the rock) and texture (the size, shapes, and spatial arrangement of crystals or grains. There are three major rock types: Igneous rocks solidify from molten liqui d (magma); crystal size within igneous rocks is largely determined by the cooling rate of the magma body.Sedimentary rocks are made of sediments formed from the weathering and erosion of any pre-existing rock; deposition, burial and lithification (compaction and cementation) transform loose sediments into sedimentary rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed by an alteration in the solid state of any preexisting rock by high temperatures and pressure. Terms and Concepts Anion Atomic mass Atomic number Carbonate Cation Cleavage Covalent bond Crystal Crystallization Electron sharing Electron transfer Isotope Magma Mineral Polymorph Precipitate Rock CH 4: igneous rocks SummaryIgneous rocks can be divided into two broad textual classes: coarsely crystalline rocks, which are intrusive (plutonic) and therefore cooled slowly finely crystalline rocks, which are extrusive (volcanic) and cooled rapidly. Within each of these broad textual classes, the rocks are subdivided according to their composit ion. General compositional classes of igneous rocks are felsic, intermediate, mafic and ultramafic, in decreasing silica and increasing iron and magnesium content. Figures 4. 1, 4. 2, 4. 3 and Table 4. 1 summarize common minerals and composition of igneous rocks.The lower crust and upper mantle are typical places where physical conditions induce rock to melt. Temperature, pressure, rock composition, and the presenceof water all affect the melting temperature of the rock: Increase temperature: not all minerals melt at the same temperature; refer to Figures 4. 6 and 4. 7, which explain how fractional crystallization results from Bowen’s reaction series. The mineral composition of the rock affects the melting temperature. Felsic rocks with higher silica content melt at lower temperatures than mafic rocks which contain less silica and more iron/magnesium.Lower the confining pressure: a reduction in pressure can induce a hot rock to melt. A reduction in confining pressure on the h ot upper mantle is thought to generate the basaltic magmas which intrude into the oceanic ridge system to form ocean crust; refer to Figure 4. 15. Add water: the presence of water in a rock can lower its melting temperatures up to a few hundred degrees. Water released from rocks subducting into the mantle along convergent plate boundaries is thought to be an important factor in magma generation at convergent plate boundaries.As subduction begins water trapped in the rock is subjected to increasing temperature and pressure. Eventually the water is released into sedimentary layers above where it melts parts of the overlying plate; refer to Figure 4. 16. Terms and Concepts Andesite Basalt Batholith Bomb Concordant intrusion Country rock Decompression melting Dike Discordant intrusion Diorite Extrusive igneous rock Felsic rock Fractional crystallization Gabbro Granite Granodiorite Intermediate rock Intrusive igneous rock Lava Mafic rock Magma chamber Magmatic differentiation Partial mel ting Pegmatite Peridotite Pluton Rhyolite PorphyryPumice Pyroclast Rhyolite Sill Ultramafic rock Volcanic ash xenolith CH5: sedimentary rocks Summary Plate tectonic processes play an important role in producing depressions (basins) in which sediments accumulate. Sedimentary basins result from rifting, thermal sag, and flexure of the lithosphere. The sedimentary stages of the rock cycle involve the overlapping processes of weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, burial, and diagenesis. Weathering and erosion produce the clastic particles and dissolved ions that compose sediment. Water, wind, and ice transport the sediment downhill to where it is deposited.Burial and diagenesis harden sediments into sedimentary rocks via pressure, heat, and chemical reactions. The two major types of sediments are clastic and chemical/biochemical. Clastic sediments are formed from rock particles and mineral fragments. Chemical and biochemical sediments originate from the ions dissolved in wate r. Chemical and biochemical reactions precipitate these dissolved ions from solution. Understanding the characteristics of sediments and modern sedimentary environments provides a basis for reconstructing past environmental conditions using the rock record.Sedimentary structures like bedding, ripple marks, and mud cracks, provide important clues about the sedimentary environment. Diagenesis transforms sediment into sedimentary rock. Burial promotes this transformation by subjecting sediments to increasing heat and pressure. Cementation is especially important in the lithification of clastic sediments. The classification of clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks is based primarily on the size of the grains within the rock. The name of chemical and biochemical sediments and sedimentary rock is based primarily on their composition. Terms and Concepts Carbonate rockCarbonate sediment Cementation Chemical weathering Compaction Conglomerate Cross-bedding Crude oil Diagenesis Evaporite ro ck Flexural basin Foraminifera Graded bedding Gravel Limestone Lithification Physical weathering Porosity Ripple Salinity Sandstone Sedimentary basin Sedimentary structure Shale Siliciclastic sediments Sorting Subsidence Thermal subsidence basin CH 6: Metamorphic rocks Summary Metamorphism is the alteration in the solid state of preexisting rocks, including older metamorphic rocks. Increases in temperature and pressure and reactions with chemicalbearing fluids cause metamorphism.Metamorphism typically involves a rearrangement (recrystallization) of the chemical components within the parent rock. Rearrangement of components within minerals is facilitated by: higher temperatures, which increase ion mobility within the solid state; higher confining pressure compacts the rock; directed pressure associated with tectonic activity can cause the rock to shear (smear), which orients mineral grains and generates a foliation; and chemical reactions with migrating fluids may remove or add mater ials and induce the growth of new minerals.The two major types of metamorphism are regional metamorphism, associated with orogenic processes that build mountains, contact metamorphism, caused by the heat from an intruding body of magma, and seafloor metamorphism, also known as metasomatism. Other less common kinds of metamorphism are: burial metamorphism, associated with subsiding regions on continents, high-pressure metamorphism, occurring deep within subduction zones and upper mantle, and shock metamorphism due to meteor impact; refer to Figure 6. 4.Metamorphic rocks fall into two major textural classes: the foliated (displaying a preferred orientation of minerals, analogous to the grain within wood) and granoblastic (granular). The composition of the parent rock and the grade of metamorphism are the most important factors controlling the mineralogy of the metamorphic rock. etamorphism usually causes little to no change in the bulk composition of the rock. The kinds of minerals an d their orientation do change. Mineral assemblages within metamorphic rocks are used by geoscientists as a guide to the original composition of the parent rock and the conditions during metamorphism.Metamorphic rocks are characteristically formed in subduction zones, continental collisions, oceanic spreading centers, and deeply subsiding regions on the continents. Terms and Concepts Amphibolite Burial metamorphism Contact metamorphism Eclogite Foliation Gneiss Granoblastic rock marble Metasomatism Migmatite Phyllite Porphroblast Quartzite Regional metamorphism Schist Seafloor metamorphism Shock metamorphism Slate Adapted for the GEOL101 course by Alfonso Benavides (2012)

Neonatal Ethics Essay

In this paper, I have described all sides of neonatal ethics and have presented my view regarding the topic. I have also managed to integrate philosophical and historical perspectives regarding neonatal care and ethics. In the end, I have given my personal opinion concerning the solution of the issues at stake. The ethical debate regarding the proper care of severely unwell infants is one of the oldest debates in medical sciences. In the present times, approaches that are extremely unusual have been taken to decide about the care of such newborns. This is the reason why it is exceedingly important to analyze the ethical concepts and arguments about many issues concerning the neonatal medicine. Such ethical debates revolve around â€Å"the value of human life; the role of best interests; the deliberate ending of life; and the withholding and withdrawing of treatment† (Brazier). It is a known fact that mankind has been facing ethical concerns since the dawn of civilization. As far as clinical situations are concerned, physicians also face ethical questions on a regular basis regarding one case or the other. However, those involved in neonatal care face a lot of ethical controversies. It is not an untold secret that ethical and moral issues regarding the treatment of neonates have penetrated into a number of features of such cases (Pueschel). When the newborns are within the first 28 days of their lives, they are known as neonates. As far as neonatal intensive care units are concerned, they frequently accommodate and look after for babies who fall in any of the three categories i. e. babies born premature having birth weight that is very low, babies born after nine months (full-term babies) having severe conditions or babies born with inherited abnormalities (â€Å"Bioethical Issues – Neonatal Ethics†). However tremendous changes have taken place in the modern times and it is now more than five decades that â€Å"neonatal medicine has been practiced to provide specialized and intensive care measures aimed at improving the health and survival of premature and critically ill newborns† (Carter). In the contemporary world, the ethical issues generally revolve around the decision making for the betterment of neonates. Such decisions entail the consideration and evaluation of treatment and assessing whether it would be helpful or ineffective for the wellbeing of the little individual. Thus both short-term and long-term scenarios related to the health of the child are considered while taking any certain decision. The two issues that are of main concern in the process of decision making are the likelihood to survive therapeutic/remedial involvement and the quality of life in the future. It is important here to mention the most renowned case of neonatal decision-making regarding Baby Doe. The child was born with Down’s syndrome and a tracheal-esophageal fistula in 1982. The parents opted for the hard choice and agreed to not repair the fistula with surgical intervention. They decided so because it was in the best interest of the child. They did not want their child to continue living a depended and quality-lacking life given by Down’s syndrome. In the end, starvation ultimately took Baby Doe’s life (â€Å"Bioethical Issues – Neonatal Ethics†). When neonatal context is discussed, decision making in this regard is rather multifaceted and difficult. The parents of seriously ill neonates have to consult with the care providers and in most of the cases, have to make decisions concerning the newborns’ life-and-death treatment. It is too difficult to decide about the fate of a child who is being awaited for so long. At the same time as it is burdensome for parents to decide the outcome of their child’s life, parents are put in a difficult position to decide so with no clear decision-making process. As a consequence, parents are often given assistance by providers and make illogical, stress-laden and uninformed choices that are not based on systematic analysis but on intuition. As a matter of fact, majority of the opted methods do â€Å"correspond with what is in the best interests of their newborn† (Panicola 723). On the other hand, in few cases, the decisions made by parents result in non-treatment decisions for babies who must be given a chance for survival and treatment decisions for neonates who must not be given a chance to survive due to their extremely poor physical condition (Panicola 723). There may be mandatory, elective or ineffective treatment based on the neonatal cases’ unique aspects. However, the physicians and parents decide to continue with a particular kind of treatment after observing the prognosis of a newborn. If the prognosis looks good, they eventually decide for medical intervention necessary to keep the newborn alive. On the other hand, there are a number of cases where parents refuse to involve medical intercession for the treatment of their child. In such occasional circumstances, hospitals take the help of their ethicists for seeking a court order so that the decisions of the parents may be made ineffective and treatment can be initiated for the betterment of the newborn. The situation turns out to be more notorious when there is no adequate knowledge regarding the prognosis of a neonate and the parents are given the choice to discuss their options about the treatment with the physician (â€Å"Bioethical Issues – Neonatal Ethics†). Thus, it is when bioethics comes into scene that deals with the limitations, commitments and responsibilities of all the people who are a major part of the decision-making progress. As a final point, there are also a number of cases when medical intervention is considered pointless and unsuccessful, nevertheless the doctors and parents insist to treat the newborn. In such circumstances, treatment is regarded as tremendously troublesome and tentative thereby pointing out that there are small chances of surviving treatment with quality of life in the least. As far as bioethics evaluation is concerned, it considers the patient rights, parental rights and physician duties and responsibilities (â€Å"Bioethical Issues – Neonatal Ethics†). It is important to mention here that in the last four to five decades, there has been a momentous development in the technology, skills and medicinal/therapeutic interventions in the neonatal intensive care unit (â€Å"Bioethical Issues – Neonatal Ethics†). Also, technical capabilities have been improved drastically allowing more speedy and accurate diagnosis, efficient scrutiny and supervision and unambiguous treatment. Special-care nursery beds are now available in large numbers and the number of important people including the professionals and specialists has also increased for the successful treatment of God’s susceptible population (Carter). Although such a notable development in neonatal care has brought up stories of joy and miraculous recovery of the newborn, there have been depressing and painful stories where the newborns ended up with severe disabilities (â€Å"Bioethical Issues – Neonatal Ethics†). As a consequence, bioethics can be helpful and facilitate both physicians and parents in solving issues related to the â€Å"regulation on use of experimental technological developments and by providing guidance in controversial situations† (â€Å"Bioethical Issues – Neonatal Ethics†). If the pages of the past are turned, it is rather obvious that the percentage of premature babies who managed to survive was very low. However, in the last three decades, the advancements in technologies and medical developments at the beginning of life have totally revolutionized the likability of babies’ survival that born before 28 weeks of gestation. In the current times, it has been recorded that in developed countries like United Kingdom, more than eighty percent pre-mature babies manage to survive and a good number of the little creatures even survive at gestation period of just twenty-three weeks. Such advancements and developments are rather exciting. However, at the same time, concerns have raised regarding the human and financial cost of such progressions in the care of neonates. According to the research, more or less twenty percent of the survivors who were born extremely premature have ninety-nine percent chances of having disabilities like cerebral palsy. A majority of such survivors are also likely to be challenged with academic and behavioral problems once they are in schools (Wyatt 1). Therefore, a lot of people are concerned whether attempts to save the life of such weak neonates is a sensible utilization of resources or not. Another contradiction in this regard is that even as huge investments are made for making it possible for a newborn to survive, the abortion of fetuses is also tolerated for social reasons. Thus, as far as ethical dilemmas are concerned, they are not only raised by the premature babies but also by babies who have grave complicated congenital malformations at the time of birth. These malformations may be in heart, nervous system, brain, lungs etc. Thus, the ethical concerns regarding neonatal care is that whether such babies must be treated or medical intervention be withheld? (Wyatt 1). As far as the historical perspective and philosophies regarding the issue of neonatal care is concerned, a number of different societies all over the world have considered newborn babies as being less valuable when compared with the adults. In Greek and Roman societies, infanticide i. e. the deliberate killings of newborns and the exposure of infants was a practice that was acknowledged commonly and practiced far and wide. As the mentioned societies characterized themselves for athleticism, power and strength so it was not a surprising thing that those people looked down on and hated babies who were weak, dependent and immature. Thus, an individual child was given importance on the basis of his likable future contributions to the society as a mature adult. Regrettably, no rules and regulations and laws were there that prohibited people from murdering the helpless and ill babies. Sorry to say, in some cases, even the newborn babies who were in good physical health did not have protection by social custom or lawful decrees. It is a bitter reality that killing of malformed babies was considered important for the maintenance of the quality of the civilians. Similar practices were also common in some parts of the Eastern world (Wyatt 1). As far as the secular perspective in this regard is concerned, a number of contemporary philosophers today have accepted the fact that unwanted babies were killed or allowed to die and it was not an abnormal practice in many of the societies in the historical times and societies. It is also claimed that even today people do not consider the murdering of unwanted babies as unethical and this is evident from the fact that prenatal diagnosis and abortion for fetal abnormality is now accepted by a lot of people and societies. Thus, this acceptance crystal clearly demonstrates that even the modern societies of today value the life of a child on his/her physical strength and healthiness and his/her prospected future contributions as an adult citizen for the society (Wyatt 2). Neonatal care raises a number of ethical issues including the deserving neonates who must be given prenatal and neonatal specialty care, the person/group responsible for paying for the care, whether neonatal intensive care costs are acceptable or not, the assurance and equitable distribution of the care, whether babies require intensive care or not, the burdensome consequences of neonatal intensive care, the decision-maker and on what basis decisions are made. These mentioned issues create dilemmas for the healthcare professionals as they obstruct the process of provision of neonatal intensive care. To some extent, these ethical issues concerning neonatal care throw light on the values of the healthcare professions, patients, parents and families. It is important to mention that that these issues are not to be ignores as the failure to acknowledge them may devalue the cultural influences that may shape up a society and human interactions. As already mentioned, neonatal medicinal advancements have provided more options to the physicians and parents. However, what must be done is still a complex decision for them as risks of deaths and disabilities have also increased. This ethical issue has been the factor of conflict between parents and doctors and in a number of cases; guidance was required through courts (Laurance 42). The research suggests that neonates must not be given medical aid and be allowed to breathe their last â€Å"when the struggle to save them results in â€Å"intolerable† suffering that outweighs the baby’s interest in continuing to live† (Laurance 42). As far as my opinion is concerned, I believe that it is the obligation of a doctor to preserve the life of a human being wherever and whenever possible. As far as neonates are concerned, these babies always have a chance to survive in the future and there have been cases when extremely premature babies were enabled to live a full life. One of the most encouraging aspects in this regard is that in the last decade, the rate of survival of exceedingly weak babies has more or less doubled. I strongly believe that the physicians and parents/guardians must not attempt to do anything that may put a stop to the continued existence of a little one simply for the reason that he/she won’t be a healthy and contributing adult in the future due to his unhealthy severe physical condition (Laurance 42). However, it is unfortunate that all the answers of the mentioned dilemmas are rather difficult as there is always a clash between values conflict and principles of morality. In addition to this, it is also not easy to agree upon a consistent situation where beneficence can be chosen over autonomy and vice versa. A majority of people hold on to both the sides of the conflict i. e. â€Å"the respect for persons principle and to the principle of beneficence† that helps them to decide about the particular actions that may result in the best consequences for the patient and the family. Unfortunately, there is no special recipe that may facilitate the involved people to decide about what is the best thing to do in situations when there is a conflict between these principles. This is also not fair to stick to one decision and disregard the other options. Thus, the best thing that can be done by a decision maker in the occurrence of such conflicts is to do a deep analysis of the situation in the most cautious manner and try to identify the values at risk and all people who may be affected by the outcomes of the decision. For sure, the patient’s interests must be the top priority before the interests of others involved (Macklin). To cut a long story short, it is better not to utilize the neonatal intensive care â€Å"when the death of the baby can only be postponed temporarily, at the price of severe suffering, or when survival is associated with severe disabilities and an intolerable life for the child and the family† (Orzalesi). This is because in some unique circumstances, the best alternative for the betterment of the child is to withhold or withdraw intensive treatment.

Styles of Learning

Introduction: There are many different styles of learning, but only three of these styles are most commonly used in school settings; auditory, visual, and a combination of the two. Auditory learners are typically good listeners who are able to pick things up when they hear them and benefit from hearing lectures, brainstorming, and participating in discussions. They are great at listening and picking up on the tone/inflection in which things are said, hearing what others simply may not. Many times, these are participants who talk through projects with you and desire verbal input. They think best outloud and can typically follow oral directions. Written information may have little appeal to them, so they may read it outloud to digest it fully (Weichel, 2016). Visual learners have a keen eye and are taking it all in. Observation and note-taking are their strengths; however, those notes may be in pictures, diagrams, or words, depending on their preferences. They may position themselves in the room so they can focus and avoid distractions. They benefit from visualization exercises, watching videos, written instructions, maps, diagrams, silent reading, and flowcharts. Many enjoy reading and are able to process the words and recall what they have seen (Weichel, 2016). Short-term memory is the second stage of the multi-store memory model proposed by the Atkinson-Shiffrin (McLeod, 2009). It acts as a kind of â€Å"scratch-pad† for temporary recall of the information which is being processed at any point in time (Mastin, 2018). Short-term memory has three key-aspects; limited capacity, limited duration, and encoding. For limited capacity, only about seven items can be stored at a time. The magic number seven (plus or minus two) provides evidence for the capacity of short term memory. Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory. This idea was put forward by Miller (1956) and he called it ‘the magic number seven'. He thought that short term memory could hold seven (plus or minus two) items because it had only a certain number of â€Å"slots† in which those items could be stored. However, Miller didn't specify the amount of information that can be held in each slot. Also, if we can â€Å"chunk† information together we can store a lot more information in our short-term memory (McLeod, 2009). For limited duration, storage is very fragile and information can be lost with distraction or passage of time. It is usually assumed that the short-term memory spontaneously decays over time, typically in the region of ten to fifteen seconds, but items may be retained for up to a minute, depending on the content (Mastin, 2018). Items can be kept in short-term memory by repeating them verbally (acoustic encoding), a process known as rehearsal. Peterson and Peterson (1959) showed that the longer the delay, the less information is recalled. The rapid loss of information from memory when rehearsal is prevented is taken as an indication of short-term memory having a limited duration (McLeod, 2009). When several elements (such as digits, words, or pictures) are held in short-term memory simultaneously, they effectively compete with each other for recall. New content, therefore, gradually pushes out older content (known as displacement), unless the older content is actively protected against interference by rehearsal or by directing attention to it. Any outside interference tends to cause disturbances in short-term memory retention, and for this reason people often feel a distinct desire to complete the tasks held in short-term memory as soon as possible. When something in short-term memory is forgotten, it means that a nerve impulse has merely ceased being transmitted through a particular neural network. In general, unless an impulse is reactivated, it stops flowing through a network after just a few seconds (Mastin, 2018). The type or characteristics of the information also affects the number of items which can be retained in short-term memory. For instance, more words can be recalled if they are shorter or more commonly used words, or if they are phonologically similar in sound, or if they are taken from a single semantic category (such as sports, for example) rather than from different categories. There is also some evidence that short-term memory capacity and duration is increased if the words or digits are articulated aloud instead of being read subvocally, in the head (Mastin, 2018). Some researchers (e.g. Eugen Tarnow) have proposed that there is no real distinction between short-term and long-term memory at all, and certainly it is difficult to demarcate a clear boundary between them. However, the evidence of patients with some kinds of anterograde amnesia, and experiments on the way distraction affect the short-term recall of lists, suggest that there are in fact two more or less separate systems (Mastin, 2018). Gender and hormones influence how the human brain develops. Recognizing some of the differences between the male and female brain can help to understand why males and females often have different learning styles and behavioral patterns. The female brain has a higher proportion of gray matter while the male brain has a higher proportion of white matter. Having more gray matter may explain why young women are usually more efficient in processing information, often have stronger verbal skills, and usually excel at juggling several activities (Male and Female Brains Are Not the Same, 2015). Having more white matter appears to help the male brain transfer information throughout the brain. This can enhance young men's spatial skills, such as navigation and and solving math problems. The differences between males and females is principally hormonal, whereby males have dominant androgens while females have more of estrogens than androgens (Does Gender Affect Memory, 2018). Researchers have argued that the difference in these sex hormones is what differentiates memory in humans based on gender. Generally, boys have superior scholastic ability when compared to girls. In terms of academics, boys technically have superior memory. However, girls and females technically have superior short term memory on various issues (Does Gender Affect Memory, 2018). The purpose of this experiment was to determine which of the most common learning modes used in school, auditory learning, visual learning, or a combination of the two modes, was most effective for information retention among males and females. This experiment explores how many words twenty 8-10 year olds can memorize in a short period of time.Results:Procedure:Three tests, a visual test, an auditory test, and a combination test, testing both auditory and visual modes together, were created for twenty 8-10 year olds to be able to read, along with a copy of each test.For the visual test, each 8-10 year old was given a list of 20 words to read over.After reading over the list, the list was taken away, and the child recited how many words he or she remembered.For the auditory test, each 8-10 year old was read another list of 20 words, and then recited how many words he or she remembered. For the combination test, each 8-10 year old was given a list of 20 words to look at while the same words were read to them.All three tests were given to each 8-10 year old, and the order in which the test were administered and which lists of words that were used were changed each time to avoid test, test-practice, or test-fatigue bias.After each test was given, the scores were recorded and averaged, along with separating the males from the females. Tests are located in â€Å"Appendix A†, â€Å"Appendix B†, and â€Å"Appendix C†.Data: The material collected was from twenty 8-10 year olds, ten being male and ten being female. For the visual test, the ten males scored 3, 5, 5, 5, 8, 7, 5, 9, 4, and 4 out of twenty, and averaged 5.5 words. For the auditory test, the ten males scored 3, 6, 5, 4, 6, 7, 6, 8, 6, and 6 out of twenty, and averaged 5.7 words. For the combination test, the ten males scored 5, 6, 4, 5, 8, 5, 5, 9, 7, and 5 out of twenty, and averaged 5.9 words. For the visual test, the ten females scored 6, 5, 4, 9, 8, 5, 8, 7, 5, and 6 out of twenty, and averaged 6.3 words. For the auditory test, the ten females scored 6, 4, 4, 6, 7, 4, 5, 4, 4, and 4 out of twenty, and averaged 4.8 words. For the combination test, the ten females scored 5, 6, 4, 6, 6, 4, 7, 6, 6, and 4 out of twenty, and averaged 5.4 words. The males averaged 5.7 words per test, and the females averaged 5.5 words per test. Table 1: Boys' Scores on the Visual, Auditory, and Combination Tests (Out of 20)Visual TestAuditory TestCombination Test335566554545868775565989467465Average: 5.5Average: 5.7Average: 5.9Table 2: Girls' Scores on the Visual, Auditory, and Combination Tests (Out of 20)Visual TestAuditory TestCombination Test665546444966876544857746546644Average: 6.3Average: 4.8Average: 5.4Graph 1: Girls' Scores on the Visual Test (Out of 20) Graph 2: Girls' Scores on the Auditory Test (Out of 20)Graph 3: Girls' Scores on the Combination Test (Out of 20)Graph 4: Boys' Scores on the Visual Test (Out of 20)Graph 5: Boys' Scores on the Auditory Test (Out of 20)Graph 6: Boys' Scores on the Combination Test (Out of 20)Graph 7: Boys' Average Scores on All Three Tests (Out of 20)Graph 8: Girls' Average Scores on All Three Tests (Out of 20)Discussion: In this experiment, ten 8-10 year old boys and ten 8-10 year old girls were given three tests, a visual test, an auditory test, and a combination (auditory and visual combined) test, and asked to recite how many words they remembered from each test. The predicted results of the experiment were that the girls would remember more words than the boys because girls generally have a superior short-term memory than boys (Does Gender Affect Memory, 2018). The results to the experiment proved otherwise; boys averaged a score of 5.7 words overall, and the girls averaged a score of 5.5 words overall. The actual results may have differed from the predicted results because the girls were tested in the hall where many other children were walking in and out of rooms, causing the girls to lose focus on the experiment. They may have not been able to focus on reading the visual test or following along on the combination test. They may have also not been able to hear the auditory test or the combination test as it was read to them. The boys may have experienced less interruptions when being tested, allowing them to obtain higher scores. The words on the lists may have also been more appealing for 8-10 year old boys, than for 8-10 year old girls. Although girls generally have a superior short-term memory compared to boys, this experiment may have proved that boys can have a superior short-term memory compared to girls. Research by many psychologists has shown that the female gender manages to organize their memory in a united style while, on the other hand, the male gender organizes their memory in a truly distinguished style (Does Gender Affect Memory, 2018). Differences in memory among males and females are diverse based on various situations and circumstances (Does Gender Affect Memory, 2018). The ten 8-10 year old boys involved in this experiment may have proved that boys have a better short-term memory when given three short tests. Since the boys scored the highest on the combination test, they might also be superior in auditory and visual learning rather than the girls.This experiment tested the short-term memory of both girls and boys when it comes to short lists of words. It proved that boys may sometimes prove superior to girls in certain circumstances, and that boys aren't primarily auditory or visual learners, but the ones experimented on are a combination of the two. Although the female brain matures faster than the male brain, this experiment concluded that girls may not always have a superior short-term memory to boys (Does Gender Affect Memory, 2018). ReferencesDoes Gender Affect Memory Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays – 1000 words. (2018).Retrieved April 29, 2018, from https://studentshare.net/psychology/63811-does-gender-affect-memoryMale and Female Brains Are Not the Same. (2015). Retrieved April 29, 2018, from http://www.multiplyingconnections.org/become-trauma-informed/male-and-female-brains-are-not-sameMastin, L. (2018).Short Term (Working) Memory. Retrieved April 29, 2018, from http://www.human-memory.net/types_short.htmlMcLeod, S. (1970, January 01). Saul McLeod. Retrieved April 29, 2018, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/short-term-memory.htmlWeichel, J. (2016, August 19).What's their learning style? Part 3: Visual learners. Retrieved April 29, 2018, from http://msue.anr.msu.edu/news/whats_their_learning_style_part_3_visual_learners AppendixA Airplanes Balloon Candy Doughnuts Fireworks Glitter Harmonicas Ice cream Jumping Karate Legos Macaroni Nachos Ocean Pirates Rainbows Shark Toys Unic orns WaffleAppendixB Astronaut Bacon Cakes Disney Elephants Fire trucks Gorilla Halloween Insects Jelly bean Kite Lollipops Marshmallow Narwhals Parrot Rabbits Sea horse Texting Volcano WatermelonAppendixC Aquariums Basketball Cheeseburger Dolphin Easter Frogs Ghost Hamsters Ice skating Juggling Ladybugs Magic Naps Pizza Robots Sea turtle Trampoline Whales Zombies Waves

Land Reform Essay

I. Land reform and Agrarian Reform Land reform or mainly called â€Å"Land redistribution†. It mainly refers to the right of owning a land. Meanwhile, Agrarian Reform is much broader than land reform. It refers to changes that are made in the land tenure system. It covers issues such as, â€Å"who owns or does not own land†, how land is used or who shares to the products of the land†. It also pertains to land productivity and rate of agricultural development 2. Land redistribution There is a so-called land-ownership and landlord class (upperclass/owners of land) receives rent from tenants such as farmers. Large landed estates are expropriated by the state authority. These lands are then broken into small farms and distribute it to farmers. As distribution to farmers occur, gov’t will come in between to pay the landlords for the farmers. The NEW landowners has to find a means of paying the installment to the gov’t who took place in paying the landlords. 3. Philippine Land reform CAR – Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Republic Act 6657 in 1988 and ended last 2008. An act instituting a comprehensive agrarian reform program to promote social justice and industrialization, providing the mechanism for its implementation, and for other purposes Definitions 1. Agrarian Reform – Distribution of land, regardless of crops and fruits produced, to farmers and farmworkers who are landless to help lift the economic status of the beneficiaries. 2. Agricultural Land – Land devoted to agricultural activities. Minerals, forest, residential, commercial or industrial lands are not included. 3. Farmer – Primary livelihood is cultivation of land or production of agricultural crops. 4. Farmworker – Render service as a laborer or employee in an agricultural enterprise or farm POLICIES * Every state should pursue a Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP). Landless farmers and farmworkers will receive the highest consideration to promote social justice and to move the nation towards development and industrialization. * Distribution and ownership of lands shall take place to provide farmers and farmworkers with the opportunity to enhance and improve their quality of life. * CARP is founded on the rights of landless farmers and farmworkers to own directly or collectively the lands they till or, to receive a just share of fruits thereof. * The state shall encourage and undertake the districution of all agricultural lands, subject to the priorities set by this act. Nevertheless, the state shall respect the rights of small landowners and shall provide incentives for land-sharing. CARPER – Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms Bill Republic Act 9700 An act strengthening the comprehensive agrarian reform program (CARP,), extending the acquisition and distribution of all agricultural lands, instituting necessary reforms, amending for the purpose certain provision of republic act no. 6657, and appropriating funds therefor. Some of the amendments are; 1. CARPER primarily extends the redistribution of lands for 5 years.   2. It also redefines the scope and some definitions in CAR 3. In Sec. 18, the CARPER also mandates that all land reform cases must be under the jurisdiction of the DAR except for cases falling under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Department of Agriculture and the DENR. Only the Supreme Court has jurisdiction to issue any restraining order or writ of preliminary injuction against the Presidential Agrarian Reform Council (PARC), the DAR, and other related agencies on agrarian reform cases. 4. A new Congressional Oversight Committee on Agrarian Reform (COCAR) is also created by virtue of the CARPER, composed of the Chairpersons of the Agrarian Reform Committees of both Houses and three members each from the Upper and Lower House, to be designated respectively by the Senate President and the House Speaker. 5. It also incorporates a new section into the existing CARL, Section 37-A, specifically mandating the inclusion of equal support services for rural women and the establishment of a women’s desk under the DAR. According to GMA news, Aquino stated that one of the ways in which CARPER will quickly be implemented is with a multi-stakeholders mechanism. They will be tasked to mnitor the implementation of the CARP specifically focusing on; 1. Coverage and distribution of agricultural land 2. Movement and performance of Department of Agrarian Reform personnel 3. Delivery support services to the beneficiaries, and 4. Budget allocation and utilization RA 9700 has allocated ate least P150 billion for the program which will be utilized to successfully complete the implementation of agrarian reform. Aquino and the land reform advocates adopted the commitment made by Interior Secretary Jesse Robredo during a meeting with the farmers last June 12, 2012. Robredo committed the government to: – work on a list of areas where there are CARPER enforcement issues, – review the PNP’s tasking and refer to the DOJ the proposed changes in 2009 guidelines, as it applies to DAR orders, – establish PNP outpost in critical areas where installed farmers are being harassed, and – establish a direct line of communication with the DILG. Sources: Sicat, G. (1983). Economics. NationalBook Store Publishers. Metro Manila Philippines. www.gmanetwork.com/news http://www.chanrobles.com/republicacts/republicactno9700.php http://www.chanrobles.com/republicacts/republicactno6657.html#.US8wcDAaNps

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words - 2

Leadership - Essay Example luated from its capability to identify the core business objective of the organization and driving all the business aspects towards achieving such objectives. However, before evaluating the effectiveness of leadership, it is important to analyze the origin of leadership. According to Adeniyi & Adeniyi (2010), there is no definite conscience regarding the origin of leadership. It is considered to be a conceptual framework, prevailing in the societal environment that is involuntarily understood across the social and organizational cultures. As the origination of leadership is said to be unknown, in order to obtain an explicit idea about leadership and its foundation, individuals have to rely on the notions and viewpoint of the eminent researchers. Such secondary sources of information regarding the origin of leadership can be accessible from various standard and internationally recognized books and journals. Methodical study of such information will provide clarity regarding the evolution of social and organizational leadership. Considering the evolution of leadership, a large number of theories and practices have been developed over a period of time in order to establish the underpinning rationale of such concepts. Mumford (2006) has identified that in Sanskrit literature, the theories of ten types of leadership was mentioned. Characteristics of such different types leadership depends upon specific sets of dissimilar traits that distinguishes one leadership characteristics from another. King, Johnson & Vugt (2009) are of the opinion that the basis of such characteristics the researchers had developed trait theory of leadership which indicates that a successful leader can be identified by showing his interests, capabilities, and personality traits. In general, in order to become a successful manager, a person must possess certain traits such that the person must be high achievement oriented and should be self-confident so that he can motivate his team in order to

Insurance Underwriting Practice Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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Summer Landscape by William Panchner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summer Landscape by William Panchner - Essay Example The essay "Summer Landscape by William Panchner" examines "Summer Landscape", made by William Panchner. Depth and distance were effectively depicted through the elongated lines at the bottom of the painting which could be interpreted as winding roads interspersed with green shrubs. The depth was evident from painting forms and objects in smaller scales to depict furthering distance from the viewer. As the viewers’ eyes search through the landscape, the concept of space was effectively depicted through exhibiting a continued journey upwards to the house, as its apex. Beyond which, shades of blues represent the skies with shimmering glitters of sunlight depicted through waves of gold. The lines that were used are predominantly elongated, wavy, and rigged. The objects were not realistically expressed and only the house a top of the hill was visibly recognizable through clear lines and effective use of differentiating color that made the house stand out from the scenery. The place ment of colors complements each other and by including white intermittently, Pachner effectively created a sense of tranquility within the scenery. He leaves interpreting other visual forms in flat rendition to the imagination of the viewers. Greens could obviously represent flora. Shades of dark blues and greys depict depth in terms of inner spaces and farther locations. Like his landscape, those who view it could be lost in the barrage of colors and lines with no clear patterns. One is led to appreciate a sense of balance in his painting.